Sampson, H. A new psychoanalytic theory and its testing in research. Barron, M. Wolitzky Eds. Shafer, R. A new language for psychoanalysis. The analytic attitude. New York: Basic Books. Smith, N. Brain, behavior, and evolution. The Psychological Record, 32, — Current systems in psychology: History, theory, research, and applications.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Weiss, J. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 7, — Noel W. Critical thinking in psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN We all encourage our students to use critical thinking, but often it is done as an abstract exercise that, ironically, succeeds merely in uncritically listing the steps one needs to follow to become a critical thinker.
Such is the approach used in many books about experimental design. The editors of this text, however, have chosen a different concept. They asked researchers whose work exemplifies critical thinking to describe the processes they engage to formulate research questions and develop designs for isolating the mechanisms responsible for the psychological phenomena they are studying. A striking aspect of this approach is how the critical thinking of the past has led to innovative breakthroughs in the design of experiments.
Those innovations, described in many chapters of this book, have become the now obvious, accepted practice of today. The opening chapter, by Halpern, defines critical thinking by identifying various skills, acquired through training, that can be brought to bear on a problem. Several of the next chapters deal with the advantages and disadvantages of various experimental designs in minimizing the likelihood of allowing confounding variables to affect results while maximizing the likelihood of finding an effect.
The chapter by McDermott and Miller expands on this theme by describing the appropriate use of experimental and correlation studies. Sternberg and Grigorenko present 21 practical lessons to guide the design and analysis of research. Book Reviews Their strength is in the provision of specific advice and concrete examples; they make the lessons easily understood.
Schwarz describes several threats to the validity of a study that can affect results by introducing subtle but often important biases. Although true of many of the other chapters in the book, this one in particular makes it clear that there is no single formula for designing excellent experiments. Instead one must think creatively about the kinds of problems one may encounter in interpreting the results.
The chapter by Martin and Hull clarifies when a case study approach is warranted. Although one tends to think of case studies as largely anecdotal and useful primarily in individual diagnosis, when they are used in neuropsychological studies, they can be very useful for identifying independent processes.
For example, with a broad battery of tests one may be able to identify deficits that are quite specific in an otherwise normally functioning person. On the basis of a small number of case studies, there is convincing evidence that deficits in working memory can occur with little accompanying loss of either long-term reference memory or procedural action memory. The chapter by Dennis and Kintsch focuses on the evaluation of a theory.
Is it consistent? Is it coherent? Lastly, and most importantly, the brain is the organ that performs the act of thinking. Objects, language, signs and symbols in our environment, once registered by our sensory organs, are interpreted in the brain to create thoughts.
The ability to think and the reason is what separates the human race from other species, including higher animals. As a species, human beings have an innate need to utilise the information in their environment in order to combat the complex challenges that we face.
The way that an individual approaches these problems and seeks solutions depends largely upon the manner in which their brain processes the information that it has been presented with. The various ways in which our brain converts this information into thoughts can be understood as Types of Thinking. Perceptual thinking is the simplest form of thinking that primarily utilities our perception — interpretation of the information absorbed by our senses — to create thoughts. It is also alternatively known as concrete thinking because our thoughts reflect our perception of concrete objects, exact interpretations or the literal meaning of language rather than applying other concepts or ideas to decipher the same information.
Young children first begin to view the world as concrete thinkers. For example, if a child were playing with a toy, they form thoughts about the size of the toy, perhaps even the sound that it makes. When the toy is taken away from the child, they may cry at first, but immediately stop thinking about the toy once they find another object that grabs their attention. Abstract thinking is a critical aspect of social interactions and communication as it allows individuals to study non-verbal cues, comprehend humour, analogies and other symbolic representations.
The ability to think in this manner usually develops in late childhood and adolescence. Abstract thinkers also perform well on standardised intelligence tests. Abstract thinkers are able to form complex thoughts about theories, emotions and language. Storytelling is a comprehensive example of abstract thinking. It makes use of emotion, rhetoric, suspense, and humour in order to relay information. Thinking does not exist in a binary i.
There are several other ways to decode the inputs from our environment, some of which are discussed below. Reflective thinking is utilised when we are trying to solve complex problems.
In order to do so, our brain reorganises all of our experiences pertinent to a specific situation in an attempt to relate experiences and ideas to find viable solutions to the challenges we face. Reflective thinking may therefore be understood as an introspective cognitive process. In reflective thinking, we reflect upon past experiences and learn from them.
For example, if an individual left their house at 9 am to go catch a bus but missed their bus, they would perhaps consider leaving home five or ten minutes earlier the next time. Critical thinking is one of the most complex thinking processes that requires higher cognitive skills and abilities such as reflection and reconstruction of thoughts and experiences so that we may interpret, analyse, evaluate and make inferences in a purposefully self-regulatory manner that is unbiased.
Critical thinkers need to separate themselves from their inherent prejudices and belief systems in order to arrive at the truth of a problem. In the age of social media, when consuming online information, it is imperative that we think critically. If we were to place blind faith in all of the information coming our way, without questioning its authenticity and intention, we would fail to be critical thinkers and instead become victims of confirmation bias.
Also Read: How to Think Critically. American psychologist B. Skinner defined creative thinking as the ability of an individual to draw new, original, ingenious and unusual inferences from and predictions about their environment. It allows individuals to interpret their surroundings in novel ways and arrive at innovative solutions for the challenges posed by their environment.
Creative Thinking is an integral element in the professional world, especially in the fields of art and science. The ability to think creatively is displayed in all aspects of life, specifically in situations where one needs to think unconventionally in order to solve a problem. Inventors, for example, are the ideal representation of creative thinkers. Inventing something new requires imagination and originality.
Conceiving the idea of a washing machine that allowed people to reduce the labour and time consumed in washing clothes manually, is an example of creative thinking. Divergent and convergent thinking are both considered to be types of creative thinking which involve finding solutions to problems by exploring a vast array of ideas and possibilities. Divergent thinking is a process during which a thinker studies infinite solutions to a problem, in order to develop an innovative answer that is a product of a free-flowing, flexible cognitive process that creates connections between these infinite solutions.
Conversely, convergent thinking is a more focused process that analyses a set of solutions and selects from them a solution to the proposed problem.
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